Optimizing fertilization strategies for low-carbon agriculture: Balancing greenhouse gas mitigation, soil health, and productivity

In the context of global climate change and the interlinked challenges of water, energy, and food systems (the Water–Energy–Food Nexus), fertilization practices critically influence greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics, and crop productivity. Conventional fertilization often exacerbates CO₂, N₂O, and CH₄ emissions, undermining soil health and long-term carbon sequestration. This review synthesizes current knowledge of the impacts of chemical fertilizers, organic amendments, and biofertilizers on GHG fluxes and SOC, spanning both short- and long-term effects. Chemical nitrogen fertilizers can rapidly enhance yields by improving nutrient availability but incur high CO₂ emissions during industrial synthesis and elevate N₂O release via intensified nitrification and denitrification. Organic fertilizers improve soil structure, aggregate stability, and medium- to long-term SOC stocks, generally lowering net CO₂ and N₂O emissions, though insufficiently composted inputs may cause temporary GHG surges. Biofertilizers harness microbial functions—such as nitrogen fixation, phosphate solubilization, and methane oxidation—to suppress N₂O and CH₄ emissions while promoting plant-mediated carbon inputs. Integrated approaches, including precision fertilization, nitrification inhibitors, controlled-release formulations, combined organic–inorganic applications, and biochar co-amendment, deliver synergistic benefits by enhancing nutrient use efficiency, stabilizing SOC, and sustaining or increasing yields. Advancing sustainable fertilization will require coordinated multi-scale, long-term field studies and process-based modeling, supported by policy incentives, farmer training, and financial mechanisms to align food security goals with emission reduction and ecosystem resilience.